IM Cultural Institute

Tag: Radicalization

  • Transformations in Collective Action – Understanding Radicalization in Social Movements

    Transformations in Collective Action – Understanding Radicalization in Social Movements

    As radicalization emerges as a central concern in contemporary social movements, this article investigates radicalization as a multidimensional and evolving process within the movements, challenging approaches that equate radicalization solely with extremism or violence.

    Grounded in the idea of a “social movement society,” where protest is a routine form of civic engagement, the study explores how collective action can shift from moderate dissent to more radicalized forms of mobilization.

    To explain this transformation, the article adopts a multi-level analytical framework that integrates macro-level structural conditions, meso-level organizational dynamics, and micro-level identity and framing processes. Using a multi-method research design, including frame analysis, protest event analysis, and secondary data, the study traces the evolution of a movement that experienced significant ideological and tactical change.

    Research results show how discursive strategies, alliances, and socio-political contexts interact to reshape protest trajectories over time, and the author concludes that radicalization should be understood as a complex, context-dependent process that reflects deeper tensions within democratic societies.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ss.20251404.15

    Reference

    Grippo, A. (2025). Transformations in Collective Action Understanding Radicalization in Social Movements. Social Sciences, 14(4), 340-349

  • Loneliness and Radicalization

    Loneliness and Radicalization

    This article investigates how experiences of loneliness play a role in radicalization processes.

    The authors’ main objective is to develop an empirically grounded theory of loneliness in contemporary forms of radicalization.

    Taking Hannah Arendt’s political theory, which posits loneliness as a breeding ground for terror as a starting point, an analysis guided by a critical phenomenological approach is constructed, adopting the perspective of subjective experiences while exploring how these are embedded in specific social structures in contemporary societies.

    Empirical data is drawn from two sets of cases: lone-actor terrorists and female Western affiliates of ISIS.

    Conclusions point to the fact that while the fear of individual and collective extinction plays an important role for right-wing lone-actor terrorists, experiences of discrimination and marginalization are crucial in the case of Islamist radicalization in Western countries.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/01914537251334550

    Reference

    Tirkkonen, S. K., & Tietjen, R. R. (2025). Loneliness and radicalization. Philosophy & Social Criticism, 0(0)

  • Engagement with Radical Propaganda drives Cognitive Radicalization: An Analysis of a Right-Wing Online Ecosystem

    Engagement with Radical Propaganda drives Cognitive Radicalization: An Analysis of a Right-Wing Online Ecosystem

    Studies into the psycho-social processes involved in the phenomena of radicalization have revealed that social exclusion, cognitive inflexibility and the perception of threats to an ingroup are significant factors in the propensity to engagement with radical content online and the posterior commitment to related offline behaviours.

    In evidence of this, a recent study seeks to research user engagement and the proxy effect in the process of cognitive radicalization within a radical-right online ecosystem.

    The findings support the assumption that content containing outgroup prejudice contributes to cognitive radicalization, and further demonstrate that user engagement plays a central role, with an engagement-dependent framework in which individual posts carry a higher likelihood of radicalizing impact based on the level of interaction they receive.

    The author highlights the implications of these dynamics for understanding behavioural trajectories, from viewing and engaging with content to joining radical groups or engaging in offline violence.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.17.1.2160

    Reference

    Calvert, J. B. (2024). Engagement with Radical Propaganda drives Cognitive Radicalization: An Analysis of a Right-Wing Online Ecosystem. Journal of Strategic Security, 17(1), 24–30

  • Policy vs Reality: Comparing the Policies of Social Media Sites and Users’ Experiences, in the Context of Exposure to Extremist Content

    Policy vs Reality: Comparing the Policies of Social Media Sites and Users’ Experiences, in the Context of Exposure to Extremist Content

    While social media enables communication and the sharing of opinions among like-minded users, it also presents risks related to its use for harmful and potentially illegal means.

    The study aims to explore the community guidelines and policies of major social media platforms concerning extremist material and to compare these policies with users’ reported experiences.

    To assess user exposure, the study pilots a new measurement tool, the Online Extremism Exposure Scale (OECE), which captures both exposure to extremist communication and hate speech online.

    Findings show that users report varying levels of exposure, with respondents indicating that extremist material appears during nearly half of their daily time spent on social media. The results also suggest potential shortcomings in social media platforms’ efforts to limit exposure to extremist content.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2023.2195466

    Reference

    Williams, T. J. V., Tzani, C., Gavin, H., & Ioannou, M. (2025). Policy vs reality: Comparing the policies of social media sites and users’ experiences, in the context of exposure to extremist content. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 17(1), 110–127

  • Towards a Fruitful Concept of Radicalization: A Synthesis

    Towards a Fruitful Concept of Radicalization: A Synthesis

    In this essay, the author seeks a definition of “radicalization” that can be operationalized, which is necessary but a challenge in itself for a few reasons.

    The term has been around for many years, and has recently been used in work on extremism, fundamentalism, conspiracism, fanaticism, terrorism, and counter-terrorism, but in the face of its so widespread use and objections that have been presented against it, the author wonders about its exact meaning and current legitimacy of use.

    A conception of radicalization that combines the four main approaches in the literature is defended, specifically referring to the monist and pluralist, as well as the absolutist and relativist ones. A conceptual analysis is used, case studies and “reflective equilibrium”.
    The result is a comprehensive theoretical argument proposed by the author, a synthesis that aims to reduce apparent conflicting ideas around the notion.

    Learn more about this essay here: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2023.2185594

    Reference

    Peels, R. (2024). Towards a fruitful concept of radicalisation: a synthesis. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 32(3), 610–624

  • Resilience Against Radicalization and Extremism in Schools: Development of a Psychometric Scale

    Resilience Against Radicalization and Extremism in Schools: Development of a Psychometric Scale

    Noticing how practitioners, policymakers, and researchers alike have argued that the school environment can be both a risk and resilience factor for radicalization and extremism among youth, and how little research has tested this directly, the authors of this study proposed the development of a scale to measure resilience against radicalization and extremism in schools, with a focus on factors that strengthen social cohesion.

    A cultural and community psychological approach was used, and data were collected from 334 pupils in mostly urban areas in Norway, with 233 participants retained for analysis. Exploratory factor analysis identified three dimensions of school resilience:

    • the perception that the school treats pupils equally no matter their social backgrounds;
    • the perception of the school and its employees as attentive and proactive in meeting pupils’ anger resulting from social and political issues;
    • the presence of mutual respect.

    Regression analyses show that perceived equality predicted lower extremist intentions and radicalization, as well as reduced levels of several extremism risk factors, including anomie, symbolic and realistic threats, and relative deprivation. Mutual respect showed no significant effects, while school attentiveness was positively associated with some risk factors, suggesting it may reflect a response to existing problems.

    Learn more about this study: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980180

    Reference

    Eldor, D. S., Lindholm, K., Chavez, M. H., Vassanyi, S., Badiane, M. O. I., Yaldizli, K., Frøysa, P., Haugestad, C. A. P., & Kunst, J. R. (2022). Resilience against radicalization and extremism in schools: Development of a psychometric scale. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 980180

  • Resiliences to Radicalization: Four Key Perspectives

    Resiliences to Radicalization: Four Key Perspectives

    As the idea of resilience to radicalization has become key in policymaking for the prevention of violent extremism, the way in which this resilience is understood by frontline workers is important to understand.

    In light of this, the authors conducted a Q-methodology study, which identified diverse views, but four main perspectives stand out on resilience to radicalization amongst policy-makers and practitioners in Belgium, the Netherlands, and the UK:

    • “being free to express and explore diverse ideas and values”;
    • “being critical and acting against injustice”;
    • “being flexible and adapting to social norms”;
    • or “being robust and closely connected to others”;

    These perspectives were examined in context of the broader debates around both resilience and radicalization, and the extent to which the divergences matter for collaboration was considered. The bottom line is that it is a fact that making these implicit ideas explicit may enable a more open discussion amongst policy makers on common points and divergences to further knowledge.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2021.100486

    Reference

    Stephens, W., & Sieckelinck, S. (2021). Resiliences to radicalization: Four key perspectives. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 66, 100486

  • Understanding Changes in Violent Extremist Attitudes During the Transition to Early Adulthood

    Understanding Changes in Violent Extremist Attitudes During the Transition to Early Adulthood

    In this study, changes in support for violent extremism during the transition from late adolescence to early adulthood were investigated, a period that may either increase vulnerability to radicalization or promote maturation and prosocial development.

    Using longitudinal data from a cohort study in Zürich, Switzerland (n = 910), the research investigates how and why violent extremist attitudes change between the ages of 17 and 20 using the Reliable Change Index. Second, hybrid regression techniques were used to investigate to what extent theoretically relevant factors can explain between- and within-individual differences in violent extremist attitudes.

    Results show that violent extremism attitudes are largely stable or declining during this period. Within-individual changes in low self-control, conflict coping skills, and peer disapproval of violence help explain these shifts. The findings also suggest that increases in psychosocial maturity, stronger prosocial peer bonds, and reduced deviant behavior are associated with lower support for violent extremism.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-021-09522-9

    Reference

    Nivette, A., Echelmeyer, L., Weerman, F., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2022). Understanding Changes in Violent Extremist Attitudes During the Transition to Early Adulthood. Journal of quantitative criminology, 38(4), 949–978

  • Former Extremists in Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization Research

    Former Extremists in Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization Research

    In this article, the authors examine how in past studies related to radicalization and counter-radicalization the experiences of former extremists have been used to inform the understanding of such issues.

    For this purpose, empirical research on radicalization and counter-radicalization that incorporates formers in the research designs was synthetized, specially in regard to how some common patterns in the formers experiences recur and are expressed:

    • extremist precursors;
    • radicalization toward extremist violence;
    • leaving violent extremism;
    • combating violent extremism.

    Overall, this article provides researchers, practitioners, and policymakers with an in-depth account of how formers have informed radicalization and counter-radicalization research in recent years as well as an overview of some of the key gaps in the empirical literature, and while analysis results show how former extremists have been a valuable source of information in the comprehension of these phenomena, this area of empirical research remains in its infancy and requires further investigation.

    Learn more about study here: https://doi.org/10.1108/S1521-613620200000025012

    Reference

    Scrivens, R., Windisch, S., & Simi, P. (2020). FORMER EXTREMISTS IN RADICALIZATION AND COUNTER-RADICALIZATION RESEARCH. Sociology of Crime Law and Deviance, 25, 209–224