IM Cultural Institute

Category: Research

  • Measuring Adults’ Media Literacy Skills and News Media Literacy Knowledge in the Context of Age, Gender, and Education Level

    Measuring Adults’ Media Literacy Skills and News Media Literacy Knowledge in the Context of Age, Gender, and Education Level

    This study investigated the relationships between self-reported media literacy skills, actual knowledge of news media literacy, and selected sociodemographic factors, namely age, gender, and level of education. Data were collected through an online survey conducted with a national sample of adults in Latvia (n = 871).

    Findings reveal a significant positive correlation between all self-reported media literacy skill subscales and the knowledge dimensions of news media literacy.

    Age is shown to be moderately negatively associated with self-reported media literacy skills and weakly negatively associated with news media literacy knowledge.

    Level of education demonstrates a weak positive relationship with both media literacy skills and news media knowledge, while gender does not significantly predict either form of media literacy.

    Relatively low levels of knowledge across three key dimensions were also identified: media industries, media content production, and media effects.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.23860/JMLE-2025-17-1-5

    Reference

    Davidsone, Agnese, Vineta Silkane and
    Ianis Bucholtz (2025), “Measuring adults’ media literacy skills and news media literacy knowledge in the context of age, gender, and education level”, Journal of Media Literacy Education, 17 (1), pp. 75-88

  • Effectiveness of Training Actions Aimed at Improving Critical Thinking in the Face of Mis- and Disinformation: A Systematic Review

    Effectiveness of Training Actions Aimed at Improving Critical Thinking in the Face of Mis- and Disinformation: A Systematic Review

    The effectiveness of training interventions aimed at improving critical thinking to counter mis- and disinformation is the focus of this systematic review. While critical thinking is widely recognized as a crucial aspect, the authors state that more evidence is needed to identify which approaches are most effective.

    Following PRISMA guidelines and a pre-registered protocol, the authors searched 12 databases and identified 8,041 articles. After screening and peer review, 17 studies were included. Most used true or quasi-experimental designs with moderate risk of bias and focused on media and information literacy through active learning approaches that included CT as part of the instruction.

    Research results indicate an overall improvement in participants’ critical thinking, although not all interventions explicitly targeted or measured this competence. In the end, only seven studies fully met the eligibility criteria, and the heterogeneity of results limited firm conclusions about overall effectiveness.

    The authors conclude by highlighting key elements for successful interventions, like active learning, diverse resources, and the explicit integration of critical thinking as a core objective within robust research designs.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06143-6

    Reference

    Marcos-Vílchez, J. M., Muñiz-Velázquez, J. A., Arraztio-Cordoba, A., & Sánchez-Martín, M. (2026). Effectiveness of training actions aimed at improving critical thinking in the face of mis- and disinformation: A systematic review. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 13(1)

  • Social Media’s Effect on Sexual Literacy and Healthy Life Skills in Young Adults

    Social Media’s Effect on Sexual Literacy and Healthy Life Skills in Young Adults

    This study explored the relationship between social media use, sexual health literacy, and healthy lifestyle skills among university students, when social media has rapidly transformed how young adults access and engage with health information.

    The aim was to examine whether social media functions as a facilitator or a barrier to health-promoting behaviors in this population.

    Using a cross-sectional and descriptive design, 598 participants voluntarily completed an online questionnaire that included socio-demographic information, the Social Media Usage Scale, the Sexual Health Literacy Scale, and the Healthy Lifestyle Skills Scale.

    Results indicate that participants demonstrated good levels of sexual health literacy and moderate levels of healthy lifestyle skills. A significant positive relationship was found between sexual health literacy, social media use, and healthy lifestyle skills. Students who had previously received education in sexual health or media literacy achieved significantly higher scores in both sexual health literacy and healthy lifestyle measures.

    Additionally, demographic factors such as gender, income level, and place of residence were associated with healthier lifestyle behaviors.

    The authors conclude that responsible use of social media may contribute positively to young adults’ sexual health literacy and health-related behaviors. The importance of integrating media literacy and sexual health education into university curricula and public health policies is underlined, and they also suggest that targeted, evidence-based digital interventions could support young people in critically navigating health information and promoting long-term individual and public health outcomes.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-25651-3

    Reference

    Dülger, H., Ada, G., Dilcen, H. Y., & Bilişli, Y. (2026). Social media’s effect on sexual literacy and healthy life skills in young adults. BMC Public Health, 26(1)

  • Hate Speech on Social Media: A Systemic Narrative Review of Political Science Contributions

    Hate Speech on Social Media: A Systemic Narrative Review of Political Science Contributions

    In light of evidence showing that many young people are frequently exposed to hateful content on social media, in this systematic narrative review the analysis of political implications of online hate speech is proposed. It addresses three key questions: the main drivers of hate speech on social media, its political consequences, and the strategies proposed in political science to counter these dynamics.

    Based on an analysis of 79 articles from political science and international relations, the author finds that online hate is linked to factors such as social media platform policies, regulatory frameworks, perceived threats to in-group identity, far-right and populist rhetoric, politically significant events like elections, traditional media narratives, post-truth dynamics, and historical animosities.

    The literature also indicates that hate speech contributes to the normalization of discriminatory behavior, silences opposing voices, and mobilizes organized hate.

    To address these effects, it is found that political science research emphasizes the role of online deterrence mechanisms, counter-speech, allyship, and digital literacy as key strategies for combating hate in the social media era.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14100610

    Reference

    Kentmen-Cin, C. (2025). Hate Speech on Social Media: A Systemic Narrative Review of Political Science Contributions. Social Sciences, 14(10), 610

  • The Potential for Media Literacy to Combat Misinformation: Results of a Rapid Evidence Assessment

    The Potential for Media Literacy to Combat Misinformation: Results of a Rapid Evidence Assessment

    This recent review article explores the potential of media literacy as a response to the growing challenge of misinformation, an issue that has attracted increasing attention from academics, policymakers, and social media platforms. It focuses on assessing the effectiveness of media literacy strategies designed to help individuals better engage with and evaluate misleading content.

    The authors used a rapid evidence assessment of research published between 2011 and 2021, examining studies at the intersection of media literacy and misinformation.

    Results show that certain types of media literacy interventions are effective, particularly those that encourage conscious, rational engagement with content and support the development of critical thinking skills. However, the effects of these interventions vary over time, reflecting the complexity and evolving nature of media and information environments.

    Learn more about this review here: https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/23549/5009

    Reference

    Anstead, Nick et al, “The Potential for Media Literacy to Combat Misinformation: Results of a Rapid Evidence Assessment”, International Journal of Communication19(2025), 2129–2151

  • The Perpetration of On- and Offline Hate Speech among Secondary School Students

    The Perpetration of On- and Offline Hate Speech among Secondary School Students

    This study analyzes the relationship between witnessing and perpetrating hate speech, both online and offline.

    The research was empirically based on data from a purpose-designed questionnaire completed by 571 secondary school students in Almería, Spain, and employs statistical analyses, including binary logistic regression and chi-square tests, to examine these relationships.

    Research results indicate a clear escalation of violence and a transfer between online and in-person hate speech. The influence of close social environments is evident, such as violence within schools. Students who experience hate speech in either environment are significantly more likely to go on to perpetrate hate speech themselves.

    The authors conclude that both online and offline hate speech perpetration are strongly associated with prior exposure to hate speech, particularly having witnessed or suffered in-person hate speech, having encountered hate speech online, and most notably, having been victimized by hate speech online.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2025.1632091

    Reference

    Cáceres, J. M. B., Martínez, P. R., Espinosa, J. J. S., & Joya, L. M. (2025). The perpetration of on- and offline hate speech among secondary school students. Frontiers in Human Dynamics, 7

  • Transformations in Collective Action – Understanding Radicalization in Social Movements

    Transformations in Collective Action – Understanding Radicalization in Social Movements

    As radicalization emerges as a central concern in contemporary social movements, this article investigates radicalization as a multidimensional and evolving process within the movements, challenging approaches that equate radicalization solely with extremism or violence.

    Grounded in the idea of a “social movement society,” where protest is a routine form of civic engagement, the study explores how collective action can shift from moderate dissent to more radicalized forms of mobilization.

    To explain this transformation, the article adopts a multi-level analytical framework that integrates macro-level structural conditions, meso-level organizational dynamics, and micro-level identity and framing processes. Using a multi-method research design, including frame analysis, protest event analysis, and secondary data, the study traces the evolution of a movement that experienced significant ideological and tactical change.

    Research results show how discursive strategies, alliances, and socio-political contexts interact to reshape protest trajectories over time, and the author concludes that radicalization should be understood as a complex, context-dependent process that reflects deeper tensions within democratic societies.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ss.20251404.15

    Reference

    Grippo, A. (2025). Transformations in Collective Action Understanding Radicalization in Social Movements. Social Sciences, 14(4), 340-349

  • Critical Thinking in the Information Age: A Systematic Review on the Role of MIL and Information Overload

    Critical Thinking in the Information Age: A Systematic Review on the Role of MIL and Information Overload

    This review paper addresses the growing importance of critical thinking and media and information literacy (MIL) in a context marked by information overload. As individuals face increasing volumes of information online, these competencies have become essential for effectively understanding, evaluating, and processing information.

    The overall purpose is to analyze and synthesize recent scientific literature on critical thinking, media and information literacy, and information overload, while identifying the relationships among these concepts, as well as their educational and social implications, and to highlight strategies that help strengthen critical competencies in information-saturated contexts.

    Drawing on a systematic review of scientific literature published between 2019 and 2024, the authors examine empirical, theoretical, and review research focused on the proposed subjects.

    Findings indicate that media and information literacy is a key skill for mitigating the negative effects of information overload and for enhancing critical thinking. Educational interventions that integrate MIL are shown to be effective in improving the ability to critically assess information, while innovative and contextualized pedagogical strategies can further address the challenges of information overload.

    It is concluded that media and information literacy is fundamental to the development of critical thinking in environments dominated by information overload, and the need for educational approaches that incorporate innovative methodologies and tools emphasized, combining digital and traditional literacies while taking into account the social and technological factors that influence access to and processing of information.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.56294/mw2025445

    Reference

    Chara-DeLosRios T, Bejarano-Álvarez P, Poma-Cornejo H, Quispe-Munares M, Reyes-Contreras K. Critical Thinking in the Information
    Age: A Systematic Review on the Role of MIL and Information Overload. Seminars in Medical Writing and Education. 2025; 4:445

  • Exploring Hate Speech Dynamics: The Emotional, Linguistic, and Thematic Impact on Social Media Users

    Exploring Hate Speech Dynamics: The Emotional, Linguistic, and Thematic Impact on Social Media Users

    In this study, online hate speech as a growing concern was examined, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, when anti-Asian sentiment increased across social media platforms.

    While the prevalence of hateful content has been widely documented, the causal mechanisms underlying emotional and behavioral changes among users who post such content remain insufficiently explored.

    The study addresses this gap by investigating the causal relationship between engaging in hateful content and subsequent changes in linguistic and emotional expression on social media.

    Using a dataset of 6,002 Twitter/X users, the authors apply causal inference methods, including propensity score matching, alongside advanced topic modeling techniques. This approach allows for a comparison between users who post hateful content and a matched group of non-hateful users.

    Findings show that users who engage in hateful posting display significantly higher levels of anger, anxiety, and negative emotions, as well as increased use of third-person pronouns. Moral outrage and profanity peak during hateful posts and decline over time, though they remain higher than in non-hateful content.

    The analysis also reveals that hateful posts are more interconnected, address a wider range of topics, and are more similar to one another, indicating lower cohesion within individual posts but greater cohesion across posts overall.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2025.104079

    Reference

    Ghenai, A., Noorian, Z., Moradisani, H., Abadeh, P., Erentzen, C., & Zarrinkalam, F. (2025). Exploring hate speech dynamics: The emotional, linguistic, and thematic impact on social media users. Information Processing & Management, 62(3), 104079

  • Enhancing Media Literacy Through Two Ludic Tools

    Enhancing Media Literacy Through Two Ludic Tools

    A recent study examined the potential of game-based learning to address the challenges young people face in navigating misinformation and critically engaging with digital media. In an increasingly unfiltered social media environment, the authors emphasized media literacy as a key competence for evaluating information and making informed judgments.

    As methodology, existent research was used, combining a benchmarking analysis of 21 tabletop games with in-depth interviews conducted with 29 experts. The benchmarking data were analyzed through comparative content analysis to identify game mechanics that support the development of media literacy, while the interview data were examined using a Grounded Theory approach to extract insights into critical skills, effective pedagogical strategies, and youth preferences in gameplay.

    These analyses informed the design of two educational tabletop games aimed at fostering critical thinking, collaboration, and ethical decision-making.

    The first game, Social Media Puppeteers, places players in the roles of politicians, journalists, and scientists, encouraging strategic discussion about social media dynamics through simplified role-playing mechanics aligned with experiential learning approaches.

    The second game, Social Media Fake News, uses structured, card-based gameplay to help players identify and deconstruct misinformation, supporting interactive and hands-on learning.

    The study shows that both games promote cognitive, social, and emotional benefits, including empathy, teamwork, and face-to-face collaboration. Through immersive narratives and role-based decision-making, players develop critical media skills in engaging learning environments.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.15847/obsOBS19520252698

    Reference

    Contreras-Espinosa, R. S., & Eguia-Gómez, J. L. (2025). Enhancing Media Literacy through two ludic tools. Observatorio (OBS*), 19(5)

  • Teacher Education, Diversity, and the Prevention of Hate Speech: Ethical and Political Foundations for Inclusive Citizenship

    Teacher Education, Diversity, and the Prevention of Hate Speech: Ethical and Political Foundations for Inclusive Citizenship

    This study examines hate speech in educational contexts, focusing on initial teacher training, in the context of Chile.

    Considering how hate speech is conceptualized as a form of expression that promotes violence and exclusion – and the amplifying role of social media -, drawing on the theories of Levinas, Arendt, and Žižek, the study emphasizes the importance of citizenship education in fostering inclusive and democratic educational environments.

    Using a quantitative, descriptive, and correlational design, the research is based on a survey of history pedagogy students at Chilean universities.

    The analysis shows that 51% of participants believe that teacher training programs should explicitly address hate speech, and 70% expect institutional support from the Ministry of Education. Additionally, a moderate positive correlation is identified between social media use and the spread of hate speech.

    Although students acknowledge hate speech as a significant issue, the findings also reveal ongoing resistance to incorporating hate speech and diversity-related content into teacher education curricula.

    A need for public policies is emphasized, which will integrate diversity, human rights, and critical digital literacy into teacher training in order to prevent discrimination and promote ethical and inclusive educational practices.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15050139

    Reference

    Marolla-Gajardo, J., & Riquelme Plaza, I. (2025). Teacher Education, Diversity, and the Prevention of Hate Speech: Ethical and Political Foundations for Inclusive Citizenship. Societies, 15(5)

  • Loneliness and Radicalization

    Loneliness and Radicalization

    This article investigates how experiences of loneliness play a role in radicalization processes.

    The authors’ main objective is to develop an empirically grounded theory of loneliness in contemporary forms of radicalization.

    Taking Hannah Arendt’s political theory, which posits loneliness as a breeding ground for terror as a starting point, an analysis guided by a critical phenomenological approach is constructed, adopting the perspective of subjective experiences while exploring how these are embedded in specific social structures in contemporary societies.

    Empirical data is drawn from two sets of cases: lone-actor terrorists and female Western affiliates of ISIS.

    Conclusions point to the fact that while the fear of individual and collective extinction plays an important role for right-wing lone-actor terrorists, experiences of discrimination and marginalization are crucial in the case of Islamist radicalization in Western countries.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/01914537251334550

    Reference

    Tirkkonen, S. K., & Tietjen, R. R. (2025). Loneliness and radicalization. Philosophy & Social Criticism, 0(0)

  • Improving Public Literacy in Hate Speech Cases on Social Media as an Effort to Mitigate Legal and Social Impacts

    Improving Public Literacy in Hate Speech Cases on Social Media as an Effort to Mitigate Legal and Social Impacts

    Following on the evidence that hate speech and the threats posed by it and its recurrence has not received enough attention, the authors have conducted a study of hate speech in social media, focusing in particular on insults that may constitute criminal speech and on the mindset of those who produce such content.

    Using a qualitative approach, the study analyzes a defamation case based on the final decision published on the Supreme Court website. Pragmatic analysis is applied to interpret the intentions underlying the offender’s speech.

    The findings identify several forms of insults, including accusations, curses, ridicule, and combinations of accusations and curses. These forms involve violations of pragmatic maxims, namely the maxims of quality, wisdom, and agreement.

    From a legal perspective, such speech can be prosecuted if it is done intentionally, contains accusations, is disseminated to the public, contains swear words, and defames the victim.

    Concluding results point to the need for greater awareness among social media users of the risks and consequences of insulting speech, emphasizing the importance of literacy around insult and defamation cases.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1504.10

    Reference

    Arianto, A. K., Santosa, R., & Yustanto, H. (2025). Improving Public Literacy in Hate Speech Cases on Social Media as an Effort to Mitigate Legal and Social Impacts. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 15(4), 1120–1129

  • Empowerment Is Key? How Perceived Political and Critical Digital Media Literacy Explain Direct and Indirect Bystander Intervention in Online Hate Speech

    Empowerment Is Key? How Perceived Political and Critical Digital Media Literacy Explain Direct and Indirect Bystander Intervention in Online Hate Speech

    With hate speech being so widespread in digital media and capable of harming people and fueling recurring hostile discourse, the study of the factors that shape bystander intervention in response to online hate speech is crucial.

    Specifically, there is still a need to understand how perceived political and digital media literacy are related to the frequency of various forms of online bystander intervention, such as counter-speech or reporting. This is what this study seeks to do.

    Based on a national online survey of German citizens (N = 2,691), the analysis focuses on individuals with prior experience in responding to online incivilities (n = 672). The study examines how perceived levels of political and digital media literacy are associated with private and public, direct and indirect forms of intervention, such as counter-speech or reporting harmful content.

    Results indicate that a sense of empowerment in dealing with digital media content is associated with more frequent direct and public interventions, including the use of counter-speech against online hate.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051251325598

    Reference

    Obermaier, M., Schmid, U. K., & Rieger, D. (2025). Empowerment Is Key? How Perceived Political and Critical Digital Media Literacy Explain Direct and Indirect Bystander Intervention in Online Hate Speech. Social Media and Society, 11(1)

  • Large Language Models can Consistently Generate High-Quality Content for Election Disinformation Operations

    Large Language Models can Consistently Generate High-Quality Content for Election Disinformation Operations

    According to the authors of this study, advances in large language models have raised concerns about their potential use in generating compelling election disinformation at scale. In evidence of this, a two-part investigation into the capabilities of LLMs to automate stages of an election disinformation operation is presented.

    First, DisElect is introduced, a new evaluation dataset designed to measure LLM compliance with malicious prompts related to election disinformation in a localized UK context. The dataset includes 2,200 malicious and 50 benign prompts and was used to test 13 LLMs. Second, the “humanness” of LLM-generated disinformation was assessed, through a series of experiments (N = 2,340).

    The results show that most models comply with disinformation requests, while those that refuse malicious prompts also tend to refuse benign election-related prompts and are more likely to reject content from a right-wing perspective.

    On the second subject, findings indicate that most models released since 2022 produce disinformation content that is indistinguishable from human-written text more than half of the time, with some models exceeding human levels of perceived authenticity.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317421

    Reference

    Williams, A. R., Burke-Moore, L., Chan, R. S., Enock, F. E., Nanni, F., Sippy, T., Chung, Y. L., Gabasova, E., Hackenburg, K., & Bright, J. (2025). Large language models can consistently generate high-quality content for election disinformation operations. PloS one, 20(3), e0317421

  • Engagement with Radical Propaganda drives Cognitive Radicalization: An Analysis of a Right-Wing Online Ecosystem

    Engagement with Radical Propaganda drives Cognitive Radicalization: An Analysis of a Right-Wing Online Ecosystem

    Studies into the psycho-social processes involved in the phenomena of radicalization have revealed that social exclusion, cognitive inflexibility and the perception of threats to an ingroup are significant factors in the propensity to engagement with radical content online and the posterior commitment to related offline behaviours.

    In evidence of this, a recent study seeks to research user engagement and the proxy effect in the process of cognitive radicalization within a radical-right online ecosystem.

    The findings support the assumption that content containing outgroup prejudice contributes to cognitive radicalization, and further demonstrate that user engagement plays a central role, with an engagement-dependent framework in which individual posts carry a higher likelihood of radicalizing impact based on the level of interaction they receive.

    The author highlights the implications of these dynamics for understanding behavioural trajectories, from viewing and engaging with content to joining radical groups or engaging in offline violence.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.17.1.2160

    Reference

    Calvert, J. B. (2024). Engagement with Radical Propaganda drives Cognitive Radicalization: An Analysis of a Right-Wing Online Ecosystem. Journal of Strategic Security, 17(1), 24–30

  • Associations Between Teachers’ Beliefs and their Perception of Hate Speech in School: A Study in Germany and Switzerland

    Associations Between Teachers’ Beliefs and their Perception of Hate Speech in School: A Study in Germany and Switzerland

    Teachers’ perceptions of hate speech in schools is an issue that should be increasingly relevant, given the prevalence of hate speech among adolescents and the need for educational responses. While teachers are expected to address hate speech as part of their professional role, little is known about the beliefs that shape their early perceptions and intervention decisions, which can be crucial in the quality of their approach.

    For this reason, this study investigates the associations between teachers’ social dominance orientation, pluralist attitudes, and their perception of hate speech in school.

    Empirical data was collected through a self-report survey of 471 secondary school teachers from Germany and Switzerland, and matched with data from 3,560 students in grades 7 to 9 to control for students’ perceptions of hate speech. Fixed-effects multilevel regression analyses were conducted, accounting for demographic variables and student perceptions.

    Study results show that teachers perceive offline hate speech as more frequent than online hate speech. Contrary to expectations, higher social dominance orientation was positively associated with both offline and online hate speech perception. As hypothesized, teachers’ pluralist attitudes were also positively linked to their perception of hate speech in both contexts.

    Nonetheless, the study concludes by emphasizing the need for further research on how teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of hate speech relate to other dimensions of professional competence in educational settings.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1432013

    Reference

    Kansok-Dusche, J., Wettstein, A., Fischer, S. M., Wachs, S., & Bilz, L. (2024). Associations between teachers’ beliefs and their perception of hate speech in school: A study in Germany and Switzerland. Frontiers in Education, 9

  • The Media Literacy Theory of Change and the Message Interpretation Process Model

    The Media Literacy Theory of Change and the Message Interpretation Process Model

    In this article, the authors offer an examination of the Message Interpretation Process (MIP) model, originally developed to explain how young people interpret entertainment media messages and make judgments about reality and behavioral choices.

    As the model has evolved, its core principles have contributed to the development of a complementary framework referred to as the Media Literacy Theory of Change. Both models are grounded in the view that media literacy involves cognitive and affective components of message interpretation, and that these skills can be taught, practiced, and adapted as individuals develop physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially. The authors provide an explanation of both models, and also a review of related research.

    In short, it is concluded that the Media Literacy Theory of Change, rather than replacing context-specific literacy models, provides a shared perspective grounded in cognitive and affective message interpretation and decision-making.

    In conjunction with the Message Interpretation Process model, this framework offers a flexible and evidence-based foundation for future research, educational practice, and media literacy interventions aimed at supporting critical thinking and informed decision-making in complex information environments.

    Learn more abou this article here: https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtae018

    Reference

    Erica Weintraub Austin, Shawn Domgaard, The media literacy theory of change and the message interpretation process model, Communication Theory, Volume 34, Issue 4, November 2024, Pages 167–177

  • From Hate Speech to HateLess. The Effectiveness of a Prevention Program on Adolescents’ Online Hate Speech Involvement

    From Hate Speech to HateLess. The Effectiveness of a Prevention Program on Adolescents’ Online Hate Speech Involvement

    In this study, the impact of online hate speech on adolescents was examined, and the effectiveness of HateLess – Together Against Hatred, a school-based intervention designed to reduce hate speech engagement and promote counter-speech.

    Using a quasi-experimental design, the research involved 820 adolescents aged 12 to 16 from 11 German schools, divided into an intervention group that participated in a one-week anti-hate speech program and a control group. Multilevel mediation analyses were used to assess the program’s effects.

    It was shown that participation in the program significantly reduced online hate speech perpetration and victimization, while increasing countering behaviors. These effects were partly mediated by increases in empathy, which were associated with lower perpetration and higher counter-speech, and by enhanced self-efficacy, which was linked to reduced victimization and greater countering of hate speech.

    Overall, HateLess appears to be a promising approach for reducing online hate speech and fostering more respectful online interactions among adolescents.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2024.108250

    Reference

    Wachs, S., Wright, M. F., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2024). From hate speech to HateLess. The effectiveness of a prevention program on adolescents’ online hate speech involvement. Computers in Human Behavior, 157

  • News Literacy and Online News Between Egyptian and Spanish Youth: Fake News, Hate Speech and Trust in the Media

    News Literacy and Online News Between Egyptian and Spanish Youth: Fake News, Hate Speech and Trust in the Media

    An exploratory study reflects on whether citizens can be considered “responsible” in their online news behavior when exposed to harmful content, fake news, and hate speech.

    It aims to position news literacy as a mediating factor in fostering civic responsibility by investigating its role in improving young people’s online news experiences and preparing them to deal with harmful content.

    News literacy is conceptualized as a multi-structural construct composed of motivation, knowledge, and skills. Using a mixed-methods approach, focus group discussions and survey data were combined to examine youths’ online news experiences and assess their levels of news literacy. Youth samples from Egypt and Spain were the empirical basis of the research, allowing for a comparative analysis.

    Results reveal a positive correlation between news literacy and the ability to identify fake news and hate speech, higher engagement with news, greater concern for content accuracy before sharing, and stronger motivation to seek news.

    At the same time, respondents from both countries expressed negative perceptions of professional news media, citing concerns that news organizations are not adequately fulfilling their role as it should be.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.3916/C74-2023-06

    Reference

    Samy-Tayie, S., Tejedor, S., & Pulido, C. (2023). News literacy and online news between Egyptian and Spanish youth: Fake news, hate speech and trust in the media. Comunicar, 30(74), 69–81

  • Can We Counteract Hate? Effects of Online Hate Speech and Counter Speech on the Perception of Social Groups

    Can We Counteract Hate? Effects of Online Hate Speech and Counter Speech on the Perception of Social Groups

    Considering the fact that hate speech can increase stereotyped thinking and social distancing in a society, while – according to the authors of this study – there is still a lack of variety in the social groups under study and research into possible solutions to the problem, the study of the effects of hate speech is proposed, specifically against Chinese people and transgender people, while investigating if counter speech can offset the detrimental effects of hate speech.

    For this purpose, a pre-registered online experiment was carried out, with a 2 × 3 between-subject design, varying the attacked group (Chinese people/transgender people) and the type of comments (neutral/hate speech/hate speech and counter speech) for an Austrian sample (n = 1285).

    Findings in this case actually seemed to reveal no effect of hate speech on the dependent variables, indicating that citizens might not be as vulnerable to hate speech, but further study is necessary.

    However, counter speech has a polarizing effect: attitudinal gaps and differences for social distancing increase between left-wing and right-wing participants if hate speech is countered.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/00936502231201091

    Reference

    Schäfer, S., Rebasso, I., Boyer, M. M., & Planitzer, A. M. (2024). Can We Counteract Hate? Effects of Online Hate Speech and Counter Speech on the Perception of Social Groups. Communication Research, 51(5), 553–579

  • Understanding and Appraising ‘Hate Speech’

    Understanding and Appraising ‘Hate Speech’

    According to the author of this study, although hate speech has become a matter of international concern, permeating institutional and lay discussions alike, what it means to refer to a linguistic act as ‘hate speech’ remains unclear.

    In light of such evidence, focusing on lay understandings of hate speech, the study explores the relationship between hate speech and hate, the distinction between hate speech and offensive speech, considering also how hate speech is defined in the UK Public Order Act 1986.

    Using a corpus-based discourse analysis, 255 hate speech–related news articles were analyzed, alongside data from the General English Web 2020 corpus.

    Hate speech is found to be a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, because hate is a central component, but it is not sufficient on its own to classify an act as hate speech, and elements such as threats, denigration of the targets based on a protected characteristic (age, race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, disability), the potential to cause harm and the intent to stir up hatred, are also essential in distinguishing hate speech and offense.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00082.vil

    Reference

    Vilar-Lluch, S. (2023). Understanding and appraising ‘hate speech.’ Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict, 11(2), 279–306

  • Policy vs Reality: Comparing the Policies of Social Media Sites and Users’ Experiences, in the Context of Exposure to Extremist Content

    Policy vs Reality: Comparing the Policies of Social Media Sites and Users’ Experiences, in the Context of Exposure to Extremist Content

    While social media enables communication and the sharing of opinions among like-minded users, it also presents risks related to its use for harmful and potentially illegal means.

    The study aims to explore the community guidelines and policies of major social media platforms concerning extremist material and to compare these policies with users’ reported experiences.

    To assess user exposure, the study pilots a new measurement tool, the Online Extremism Exposure Scale (OECE), which captures both exposure to extremist communication and hate speech online.

    Findings show that users report varying levels of exposure, with respondents indicating that extremist material appears during nearly half of their daily time spent on social media. The results also suggest potential shortcomings in social media platforms’ efforts to limit exposure to extremist content.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2023.2195466

    Reference

    Williams, T. J. V., Tzani, C., Gavin, H., & Ioannou, M. (2025). Policy vs reality: Comparing the policies of social media sites and users’ experiences, in the context of exposure to extremist content. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 17(1), 110–127

  • Media and Information Literacy and Critical Thinking: A Systematic Review

    Media and Information Literacy and Critical Thinking: A Systematic Review

    In a context marked by the spread of misinformation and the growing influence of media—particularly social media—on certain social groups, the authors highlight the need to analyze how media and information literacy in the formation of citizens contributes to the development of critical thinking.

    This effort is based on a systematic review of scientific literature addressing the intersection of critical thinking and media and information literacy. Using the Core Collection of the Web of Science and Scopus databases, the authors analyzed a sample of 65 articles selected through predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria.

    It was concluded that integrating media and information literacy into educational contexts contributes to strengthening individuals’ critical abilities, supporting the development of more informed and critically engaged citizens.

    Learn more about this review here: https://www.doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2023-1939

    Reference

    López-González, H., Sosa, L., Sánchez, L. y Faure-Carvallo, A. (2023). Media and Information
    Literacy and Critical Thinking: A Systematic Review. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, 81,
    399-423

  • Towards a Fruitful Concept of Radicalization: A Synthesis

    Towards a Fruitful Concept of Radicalization: A Synthesis

    In this essay, the author seeks a definition of “radicalization” that can be operationalized, which is necessary but a challenge in itself for a few reasons.

    The term has been around for many years, and has recently been used in work on extremism, fundamentalism, conspiracism, fanaticism, terrorism, and counter-terrorism, but in the face of its so widespread use and objections that have been presented against it, the author wonders about its exact meaning and current legitimacy of use.

    A conception of radicalization that combines the four main approaches in the literature is defended, specifically referring to the monist and pluralist, as well as the absolutist and relativist ones. A conceptual analysis is used, case studies and “reflective equilibrium”.
    The result is a comprehensive theoretical argument proposed by the author, a synthesis that aims to reduce apparent conflicting ideas around the notion.

    Learn more about this essay here: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2023.2185594

    Reference

    Peels, R. (2024). Towards a fruitful concept of radicalisation: a synthesis. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 32(3), 610–624

  • Hate Speech in the Internet Context: Unpacking the Roles of Internet Penetration, Online Legal Regulation, and Online Opinion Polarization from a Transnational Perspective

    Hate Speech in the Internet Context: Unpacking the Roles of Internet Penetration, Online Legal Regulation, and Online Opinion Polarization from a Transnational Perspective

    In this study, the dynamics of online hate speech are examined through the analysis of a panel dataset covering 167 countries over 19 years, drawn from the V-Dem project.

    The relationships between key Internet context indicators and online hate speech is explored, in order to better understand how the phenomenon can be addressed at a global scale.

    Findings show that what the authors call “Internet penetration” is positively associated with online hate speech, supporting the idea that the technological affordances of the Internet can facilitate the expression of hateful content. Online legal regulation is negatively related to online hate speech, not significantly moderating the relationship between Internet penetration and hate speech, highlighting tensions in the effectiveness of legal approaches. On another hand, online opinion polarization is positively associated with online hate speech and significantly strengthens the relationship between Internet penetration and hate speech, suggesting that polarized opinion environments intensify hate speech and intergroup conflict.

    The study concludes by offering a discussion of the theoretical contributions of these findings and their implications for policy aimed at reducing online hate speech worldwide.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/02666669221148487

    Reference

    Liu, Z., Luo, C., & Lu, J. (2024). Hate speech in the Internet context: Unpacking the roles of Internet penetration, online legal regulation, and online opinion polarization from a transnational perspective. Information Development, 40(4), 533–549

  • Resilience Against Radicalization and Extremism in Schools: Development of a Psychometric Scale

    Resilience Against Radicalization and Extremism in Schools: Development of a Psychometric Scale

    Noticing how practitioners, policymakers, and researchers alike have argued that the school environment can be both a risk and resilience factor for radicalization and extremism among youth, and how little research has tested this directly, the authors of this study proposed the development of a scale to measure resilience against radicalization and extremism in schools, with a focus on factors that strengthen social cohesion.

    A cultural and community psychological approach was used, and data were collected from 334 pupils in mostly urban areas in Norway, with 233 participants retained for analysis. Exploratory factor analysis identified three dimensions of school resilience:

    • the perception that the school treats pupils equally no matter their social backgrounds;
    • the perception of the school and its employees as attentive and proactive in meeting pupils’ anger resulting from social and political issues;
    • the presence of mutual respect.

    Regression analyses show that perceived equality predicted lower extremist intentions and radicalization, as well as reduced levels of several extremism risk factors, including anomie, symbolic and realistic threats, and relative deprivation. Mutual respect showed no significant effects, while school attentiveness was positively associated with some risk factors, suggesting it may reflect a response to existing problems.

    Learn more about this study: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980180

    Reference

    Eldor, D. S., Lindholm, K., Chavez, M. H., Vassanyi, S., Badiane, M. O. I., Yaldizli, K., Frøysa, P., Haugestad, C. A. P., & Kunst, J. R. (2022). Resilience against radicalization and extremism in schools: Development of a psychometric scale. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 980180

  • Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts

    Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts

    This review addresses the ongoing challenges faced by legislators and digital platforms in defining and regulating hate speech online.

    Despite increased attention to the issue, questions surrounding the definition of hate speech remain unresolved, raising concerns about both theoretical clarity and practical applicability. For this reason, the paper focuses on three central questions: the main challenges involved in defining hate speech, the possible alternatives to existing definitions, and the relationship between the scope of a definition and its operationalization in online contexts.

    By tracing regulatory and definitional efforts across legal, paralegal, and technology platform settings, the review identifies four main modes of defining hate speech: teleological, pure consequentialist, formal, and consensus or relativist approaches.

    The authors highlight that, although hate speech has long been the focus of legal and ethical debate, both its theoretical definition and its regulation remain elusive. Existing definitions are often vague or internally inconsistent, with no universally accepted framework emerging from legal theory, jurisprudence, or academic research. This lack of consensus is further complicated by new ethical and communicative challenges posed by digital and social media environments.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1177/01968599221124309

    Reference

    Hietanen, M., & Eddebo, J. (2022). Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 47(4), 440-458

  • Youths as Targets: Factors of Online Hate Speech Victimization among Adolescents and Young Adults

    Youths as Targets: Factors of Online Hate Speech Victimization among Adolescents and Young Adults

    In this study, the victimization of adolescents and young adults through online hate speech was investigated, a phenomenon that can cause severe psychological harm during critical developmental stages.

    Drawing on criminology’s routine activity theory, the research investigates factors that help explain why young people become targets of online hate speech.It is empirically based on a national, quota-based quantitative online survey representative of adolescent and young adult internet users (N = 1,180).

    Data analysis identifies six latent profiles of young targets, characterized by overall high or low levels of online hate speech victimization, as well as victimization related to gender, migration background, religion, and political engagement on behalf of the queer community.

    Concluding results show that relative subjective deprivation, political participation, and lower levels of digital media literacy are positively associated with overall victimization through online hate speech. At the same time, members of specific social groups and politically engaged youths are more likely to be targeted.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmac012

    Reference

    Obermaier, M., & Schmuck, D. (2022). Youths as targets: Factors of online hate speech victimization among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 27(4)

  • Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences

    Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences

    Social Media Literacy – As an emerging concept that remains underdeveloped in the literature, it is presented as a relevant framework for understanding how individuals interact with digital platforms.

    Through a systematic review, the authors aimed to descriptively analyze the main definitions and competences associated with social media literacy.

    To achieve this, a literature search was conducted in the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases, covering publications between 2010 and 2021 and limited to scientific articles in English and Spanish, with a total of 15 studies selected after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria.

    Findings indicate that social media literacy builds on traditional media literacy while integrating the specific characteristics and implications of digital platforms. It is closely linked to the development of cognitive competences, with critical thinking playing a central role, alongside socio-emotional and technical competences shaped by social context.

    Authors also highlight the influence of social, cultural, economic, and political contexts, as well as the distinct cultures of different platforms, in shaping users’ experiences and interactions on social media.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148807

    Reference

    Polanco-Levicán, K., & Salvo-Garrido, S. (2022). Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(14), 8807

  • Is Radicalization a Family Issue? A Systematic Review of Family‐Related Risk and Protective Factors, Consequences, and Interventions Against Radicalization

    Is Radicalization a Family Issue? A Systematic Review of Family‐Related Risk and Protective Factors, Consequences, and Interventions Against Radicalization

    A systematic review investigated the role of family-related risk and protective factors in radicalization, an area where evidence remains fragmented despite the recognized importance of family contexts in antisocial behaviors. It also considered the potential impact of radicalization on families and the effectiveness of family-focused interventions.

    Based on a comprehensive search of academic and gray literature, the review includes 33 quantitative studies examining family-related risk and protective factors for radicalization, covering data from more than 148,000 adolescents and adults across diverse geographic contexts. Meta-analyses were also conducted where possible, on factors such as parental ethnic socialization, extremist family members, family conflict, socioeconomic status, family size, and family commitment.

    Results indicate that parental ethnic socialization, having extremist family members, and family conflict are aspects associated with higher levels of radicalization, while higher socioeconomic status, larger family size, and stronger family commitment are associated with lower levels of radicalization.

    However, causal relationships could not be established, overall risk of bias was high, and no studies were identified on the impact of radicalization on families or on family-based interventions.

    The authors conclude that, despite these limitations, policies and practices should aim to reduce family-related risk factors and strengthen protective factors. The urgent need for the design and evaluation of family-focused interventions is emphasized, as well as further research on the effects of radicalization on families and longitudinal studies on family-related risk and protective factors.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1266

    Reference

    Zych, I., & Nasaescu, E. (2022). Is radicalization a family issue? A systematic review of family-related risk and protective factors, consequences, and interventions against radicalization. Campbell systematic reviews, 18(3), e1266

  • A Systematic Review on Hate Speech among Children and Adolescents: Definitions, Prevalence, and Overlap with Related Phenomena

    A Systematic Review on Hate Speech among Children and Adolescents: Definitions, Prevalence, and Overlap with Related Phenomena

    This systematic review examined the current state of research on the involvement of young people in hate speech, an area the authors affirm that remains relatively underexplored.

    Two main issues make its focus: the prevalence of hate speech among children and adolescents, including the definitions used to assess prevalence, and the theoretical and empirical overlap between hate speech and related concepts.

    Guided by the Cochrane approach, the review includes studies reporting real-life experiences of hate speech and providing empirical prevalence data for samples aged 5 to 21 years. An electronic search across ERIC, SocInfo, PsycInfo, and Psyndex identified 1,850 publications, of which 18 publications based on 10 studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies relied on quantitative methods and focused on adolescent samples, with no studies examining younger children.

    Results show that exposure to hate speech was more frequent than victimization or perpetration, empirical evidence of overlap between hate speech and bullying was also identified, while definitions and assessment instruments varied considerably across studies.

    The authors conclude by outlining various implications for practice, policy, and future research, and proposing the following definition of hate speech:

    “Hate speech is a derogatory expression (e.g., words, posts, text messages, images, videos) about people (directly or vicariously) on the basis of assigned group characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, disability, religion). Hate speech is based on an intention to harm and it has the potential to cause harm on multiple different levels (e.g., individual, communal, societal).”

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221108070

    Reference

    Kansok-Dusche, J., Ballaschk, C., Krause, N., Zeißig, A., Seemann-Herz, L., Wachs, S., & Bilz, L. (2022). A Systematic Review on Hate Speech among Children and Adolescents: Definitions, Prevalence, and Overlap with Related Phenomena. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(4), 2598-2615

  • A Snapshot of Digital Literacy

    A Snapshot of Digital Literacy

    This literature review has the purpose of analyzing the impact of digital literacy and its evolving nature on individuals’ daily lives.

    It explores digital literacy frameworks, approaches to digital literacy education, as well as the relationship between digital literacy and critical thinking, while also addressing emerging and future challenges in digital contexts, providing insight into digital literacy from the perspectives of global citizenship, critical thinking, and rapidly advancing technologies.

    Drawing on a qualitative review of recent literature, the authors reflect on current research to identify key trends in digital literacy.

    Analysis indicates a growing focus on digital literacy over time, with different organizations and institutions developing their own frameworks to support and implement digital literacy initiatives. The review also shows that digital literacy development often begins within the family at an early age and continues throughout life as part of a broader lifelong learning process.

    Moreover, it is discussed how engagement with online resources—particularly social media—contributes to the development of digital literacy skills, while at the same time requiring strong critical thinking abilities to evaluate and filter information. Issues such as information suppression are highlighted as important concerns, underscoring the increasing significance of digital literacy for future generations. As digital technologies continue to advance, the scope of digital literacy is expected to expand further, including competencies related to artificial intelligence.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1108/LHTN-12-2021-0095?urlappend=%3Futm_source%3Dresearchgate.net%26utm_medium%3Darticle

    Reference

    Tinmaz H, Fanea-Ivanovici M, Baber H (2023), “A snapshot of digital literacy”. Library Hi Tech News, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 20–23

  • Untangling Media Literacy, Information Literacy, and Digital Literacy: A Systematic Meta-Review of Core Concepts in Media Education

    Untangling Media Literacy, Information Literacy, and Digital Literacy: A Systematic Meta-Review of Core Concepts in Media Education

    This systematic meta-review of scientific literature addresses the concepts of media literacy, information literacy, and digital literacy, examining how these three forms of literacy are defined and discussed.

    Texts were retrieved in two stages. The first text extraction was carried out in November 2015, and a second extraction took place in March 2019, a method that allowed for tracking the evolution of scientific literature over this period. In order to be selected, texts needed to address literacy concepts, propose definitions for these concepts, and discuss how they relate to competing or complementary terms.

    Through an analysis of the corpus, four trends within scientific literature were identified as problematic:

    • a significant increase in the number of concepts pertaining to the concept of literacy between 2000 and 2019;
    • a lack of consensual definitions for these concepts;
    • limited interdisciplinarity;
    • and the development of concepts and “integrative” frameworks with the aim of connecting and organizing the various literacies.

    In short, it highlights increasing conceptual complexity, heterogeneous perspectives, and a degree of theoretical disorganization that contributes to ongoing difficulties in operationalizing these literacies in research, concluding that research on media, information, and digital literacies is affected by this conceptual ambiguity, resulting in difficulties in translating theory into educational practice.

    Learn more about this review here: https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jmle-preprints/20

    Reference

    Wuyckens, G., Landry, N., & Fastrez, P. (2021). Untangling media literacy, information literacy, and digital literacy: a systematic meta-review of core concepts in media education. Journal of Media Literacy Education Pre-Prints

  • Hate Speech Operationalization: A Preliminary Examination of Hate Speech Indicators and their Structure

    Hate Speech Operationalization: A Preliminary Examination of Hate Speech Indicators and their Structure

    Hate speech could be efficiently addressed and prosecuted based on how it is operationalized, yet, according to the authors of this study, existing theoretical definitions remain insufficiently developed and difficult to apply in practice.

    To address this limitation, an empirical definition of hate speech is developed with the input of interdisciplinary experts, and a set of ten indicators introduced, based on observable and measurable characteristics.

    A preliminary exploratory analysis focusing on comments related to migrants shows that two indicators—denial of human rights and the promotion of violent behavior—play a central role within the network of hate speech indicators.

    The practical implications of using these indicators is also discussed, particularly for the (semi-)automatic detection of hate speech through the methods of natural language processing and machine learning.

    Overall, the proposed framework aims to be a pragmatic approach to hate speech assessment and detection, with potential benefits for researchers, educators, human rights advocates, analysts, and regulators seeking more operable and measurable definitions of hate speech.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40747-021-00561-0

    Reference

    Papcunová, J., Martončik, M., Fedáková, D., Kentoš, M., Bozogáňová, M., Srba, I., Moro, R., Pikuliak, M., Šimko, M., & Adamkovič, M. (2023). Hate speech operationalization: A preliminary examination of hate speech indicators and their structure. Complex & Intelligent Systems, 9(3), 2827–2842

  • Resiliences to Radicalization: Four Key Perspectives

    Resiliences to Radicalization: Four Key Perspectives

    As the idea of resilience to radicalization has become key in policymaking for the prevention of violent extremism, the way in which this resilience is understood by frontline workers is important to understand.

    In light of this, the authors conducted a Q-methodology study, which identified diverse views, but four main perspectives stand out on resilience to radicalization amongst policy-makers and practitioners in Belgium, the Netherlands, and the UK:

    • “being free to express and explore diverse ideas and values”;
    • “being critical and acting against injustice”;
    • “being flexible and adapting to social norms”;
    • or “being robust and closely connected to others”;

    These perspectives were examined in context of the broader debates around both resilience and radicalization, and the extent to which the divergences matter for collaboration was considered. The bottom line is that it is a fact that making these implicit ideas explicit may enable a more open discussion amongst policy makers on common points and divergences to further knowledge.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2021.100486

    Reference

    Stephens, W., & Sieckelinck, S. (2021). Resiliences to radicalization: Four key perspectives. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 66, 100486

  • Understanding Changes in Violent Extremist Attitudes During the Transition to Early Adulthood

    Understanding Changes in Violent Extremist Attitudes During the Transition to Early Adulthood

    In this study, changes in support for violent extremism during the transition from late adolescence to early adulthood were investigated, a period that may either increase vulnerability to radicalization or promote maturation and prosocial development.

    Using longitudinal data from a cohort study in Zürich, Switzerland (n = 910), the research investigates how and why violent extremist attitudes change between the ages of 17 and 20 using the Reliable Change Index. Second, hybrid regression techniques were used to investigate to what extent theoretically relevant factors can explain between- and within-individual differences in violent extremist attitudes.

    Results show that violent extremism attitudes are largely stable or declining during this period. Within-individual changes in low self-control, conflict coping skills, and peer disapproval of violence help explain these shifts. The findings also suggest that increases in psychosocial maturity, stronger prosocial peer bonds, and reduced deviant behavior are associated with lower support for violent extremism.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-021-09522-9

    Reference

    Nivette, A., Echelmeyer, L., Weerman, F., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2022). Understanding Changes in Violent Extremist Attitudes During the Transition to Early Adulthood. Journal of quantitative criminology, 38(4), 949–978

  • Former Extremists in Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization Research

    Former Extremists in Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization Research

    In this article, the authors examine how in past studies related to radicalization and counter-radicalization the experiences of former extremists have been used to inform the understanding of such issues.

    For this purpose, empirical research on radicalization and counter-radicalization that incorporates formers in the research designs was synthetized, specially in regard to how some common patterns in the formers experiences recur and are expressed:

    • extremist precursors;
    • radicalization toward extremist violence;
    • leaving violent extremism;
    • combating violent extremism.

    Overall, this article provides researchers, practitioners, and policymakers with an in-depth account of how formers have informed radicalization and counter-radicalization research in recent years as well as an overview of some of the key gaps in the empirical literature, and while analysis results show how former extremists have been a valuable source of information in the comprehension of these phenomena, this area of empirical research remains in its infancy and requires further investigation.

    Learn more about study here: https://doi.org/10.1108/S1521-613620200000025012

    Reference

    Scrivens, R., Windisch, S., & Simi, P. (2020). FORMER EXTREMISTS IN RADICALIZATION AND COUNTER-RADICALIZATION RESEARCH. Sociology of Crime Law and Deviance, 25, 209–224

  • Hate Speech Epidemic. The Dynamic Effects of Derogatory Language on Intergroup Relations and Political Radicalization

    Hate Speech Epidemic. The Dynamic Effects of Derogatory Language on Intergroup Relations and Political Radicalization

    In this article, the way how exposure to derogatory language targeting immigrants and minority groups contributes to political radicalization and deteriorates intergroup relations is discussed.

    The psychological processes underlying both the effects of hate speech and its proliferation in contemporary societies are considered, as well as the factors that may constrain its growth.

    The authors argue that frequent exposure to hate speech has profound emotional, behavioral, and normative consequences. Empathy is gradually replaced by intergroup contempt, which both motivates and results from derogatory language. As hate speech becomes more prevalent, it creates a descriptive norm that legitimizes outgroup derogation, leading to the erosion of existing antidiscriminatory norms. In addition, repeated exposure produces desensitization, reducing individuals’ ability to recognize the offensive nature of such language.

    Drawing on empirical evidence from social psychology and the psychology of emotion and aggression, a model is proposed to explain these processes and explores its dynamics using an agent-based modeling approach. It is shown that mechanisms that could limit the spread of hate speech, such as empathy and social norms, are themselves weakened by continued exposure.

    Concluding remarks point out that these psychological dynamics contribute to greater societal acceptance of derogatory language and increased hostility toward immigrants and religious, ethnic, and sexual minorities.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12670

    Reference

    Bilewicz, M. and Soral, W. (2020), Hate Speech Epidemic. The Dynamic Effects of Derogatory Language on Intergroup Relations and Political Radicalization. Political Psychology, 41: 3-33

  • Prevalence and Psychological Effects of Hateful Speech in Online College Communities

    Prevalence and Psychological Effects of Hateful Speech in Online College Communities

    This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and impact of hateful speech within college communities, where such speech can have particularly harmful psychological and social consequences.

    Regulating hateful speech on college campuses raises complex socio-political challenges, making it essential to assess both how widespread the phenomenon is and how it affects students’ psychological well-being.

    Focusing on the online dimension of campus life, a dataset of approximately six million Reddit comments shared across 174 college-related communities was analyzed.

    To measure the prevalence of hateful speech, the authors introduce the College Hate Index (CHX), which is used to examine the distribution of hateful speech across categories such as behavior, class, disability, ethnicity, gender, physical appearance, race, religion, and sexual orientation. A causal inference framework is then applied to investigate the psychological effects of exposure to hateful speech, particularly through expressions of online stress.

    The analysis also explored differences in psychological endurance by examining language use, discriminatory keywords, and personality traits.

    Findings showed that hateful speech is prevalent in online college communities, with around 25% of college subreddits exhibiting higher levels of hateful speech than non-college subreddits. Exposure to hateful content was associated with increased stress expression, although individuals were not affected equally. Students with lower psychological endurance appear more vulnerable to emotional outbursts and exhibit higher levels of neuroticism compared to those with greater resilience.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1145/3292522.3326032

    Reference

    Saha, K., Chandrasekharan, E., & De Choudhury, M. (2019). Prevalence and Psychological Effects of Hateful Speech in Online College Communities. Proceedings of the … ACM Web Science Conference. ACM Web Science Conference, 2019, 255–264